The Art and Science of Carpentry Made Easy
By William E Bell
1857

In 1857, a good carpenter could use tools well, but not more than one in ten could "layout a frame readily and correctly". Bell's book sets out to make the art of timber framing available to the intelligent carpenter. The areas covered range from plane geometry to bridge building.

Two by four studs had become commonplace for house framing by the 1850s. However, the preferred sill was an eight by eight inch timber. The sill was expected to be "irregular and winding " due to "carelessness in hewing" or "the process of seasoning after being hewed".

Timber framing was the norm for barns, mills, warehouses, and bridges. When lowest cost was important, the frame would be wholly wood with two to three wood pins used to secure each tenon, (as in mortise and tenon). When strength was more important, iron straps, bolts or rods were used in key connections. Similarly, wood king and queen posts might be used instead of supporting iron rods if money was of concern. Iron was estimated to be ten times stronger than wood.

In barns, the sills might be twelve inches square and the posts ten inches square. Iron rods or straps tied timbers together to "truss a beam partition", over a barn door or other large wall opening. This looked very much like our dimensional lumber trusses of today, except that timbers were used.

In mill buildings, the main timbers were often twelve inches square. Iron bolts would be one inch or more in diameter. Bolts could be left exposed "to show them more distinctly" or countersunk if plaster was used. The strengthening effect on walls of plaster lathing was also accounted for.

An acid test for a timber frame roof arose with the repair of locomotives. Twenty ton locomotives were suspended by chains from the timber frame roof.

Another challenge for the timber framer, was to raise church spires as much as 85 feet above the tie beam.